Category: African American History

A Valuable Resource for Studying African American History: “The Book of Negroes”

“The Book of Negroes” is an essential resource for those researching African American genealogy and slavery during the American Revolution. The British meticulously compiled this enumeration during their evacuation of New York at the end of the war in 1783. The ledger contains detailed information about approximately 3,000 self-emancipated and free Black people who evacuated alongside British loyalists and soldiers.

A page of Maryland entries from the “Book of Negroes.” Note the freedom seekers from Susquehanna Ferry and “Sussex County, Marland.” (Source: The Carelton Papers, Library and Archives of Canada)

Each handwritten entry provides vital information, including the individual’s name, age, and description. By consulting this remarkable source, researchers can uncover details about their journey to freedom, including the identity of their enslavers and the circumstances around their escape.

During the American Revolution, Sir Henry Clinton, the British Commander-in-chief in the colonies from 1778 to 1782, issued the Philipsburg Proclamation on June 30, 1779. This proclamation offered protection and freedom to enslaved individuals who escaped their patriot enslavers and sought refuge with the British. According to Maya Jasanoff, the author of Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World, around 20,000 enslaved people joined the British, while approximately 5,000 Black men served in the Continental Army.

On November 30, 1782, peace negotiations between Great Britain and American diplomats resulted in the signing of the preliminary articles of peace. The peace treaty stipulated that owners of self-emancipated Black people who reached British lines by that date would receive compensation, and these individuals would be granted freedom.

Sir Guy Carleton, who assumed command of British forces in America, organized the orderly evacuation of New York, the final British port. Carleton ordered the creation of the ledgers to document the loss of enslaved property, which the British government would later compensate. Carrying certificates of freedom, approximately 3,000 Black people joined the Loyalist exodus from New York to Nova Scotia in 1783.

Here are several free digital resources online to help with mining these old enumerations:

A Page from the Inspection Roll of Negroes Book. No. 1, 1793, National Archives

Lecture: The Long Fight for Civil Rights in Healthcare & Medicine

I am pleased to announce that my research on  Jim Crow discrimination and segregation in healthcare has been selected for inclusion in the Delaware Humanities Speakers Bureau catalog for 2024. This opportunity allows me to share my findings with a broad audience and shed light on a largely unexamined aspect of our history.

Dr. W. M. Henry dover, Delaware
Dr. W. M. Henry, an African American physician, and surgeon, established a practice in Dover in 1911 (Source: Evening Journal, Sept. 28, 1911)

During the Jim Crow era, discriminatory practices and segregation extended to all aspects of life, including medicine. Black Americans were denied access or received substandard care, leading to health disparities.

Through my research project, I have delved deeply into the struggles endured by African Americans in fighting against this inequality. Utilizing interviews, archival research, hospital records, and nursing school files, I have unearthed a wealth of information that sheds light on the civil rights movement within the medical field.

Here is the program description:

Fighting Jim Crow Discrimination and Segregation in Health Care examines the experiences of African Americans before the passage of modern Civil Rights legislation in the mid-1960s. By highlighting this little-known history within the context of Delmarva and the broader region, I aim to shed light on the contributions of African American doctors, nurses, and caregivers and the advances made within the Black hospital system. This program will explore activists’ struggles in their fight against racism and their relentless pursuit of equality in medicine and health.

african american nurses struggled for civil rights
African American Nurses at Camp Sherman, Ohio, around 1918 (Source: National Women’s History Museum)

This program aims to help participants understand and discuss this unique civil rights narrative, the lesser-known story about the historic struggle for health equality in the United States and the region, and how this legacy affected African Americans.  Here are some of the objectives:

  • Recognize the contributions of unheralded African American trailblazers in the medical professions and allied occupations.
  • Understand how Black activists, NAACP lawyers, professional organizations, and everyday citizens worked to eliminate discrimination and create equal access.
  • Describe how litigation and federal law ended the “separate but equal” legal doctrine for hospitals.
  • Discuss the history and legacy of African American healthcare and consider what we can learn from the struggle to achieve equality.

Students’ Research Project Sheds Light on Murder of Educator

During a recent semester, Lisa Hutchings, a student in my African American history class at Wilmington University, embarked on a research project that delved into the remarkable story of Stephen Handy Long and his impact on the education of Black children in Worcester County, MD. However, as she dug into primary and secondary sources, pored over archives materials, and interviewed people, she stumbled upon a distressing revelation. Professor Long, who oversaw African American schools in Worcester County, met a tragic end on the streets of downtown Pocomoke City.((Lisa Y. Hutchings, The Legacy of Stephen Handy Long,” Wilmington University Research Paper, Fall 2020))

The Worcester Democrat and the Ledger-Enterprise reported on the murder of the civil rights advocate on Sept. 17, 1921.

Unraveling the events, Lisa discovered that in September 1921, Professor Long intervened in a situation where a white farmer, granted legal guardianship of two Black children, refused to allow them to attend school. Despite his effort to resolve the issue, the “supervisor of Worcester County Colored Schools” was unable to secure the children’s attendance, prompting him to notify the Orphans’ Court. As was common during the post-Civil War era, children of color were often placed under the guardianship of white farmers.

School Supervisor Murdered

After the court took the children, the farmer and his brother held Professor Long responsible for the loss of labor, resulting in a fateful encounter on September 13, 1921. As Professor Long walked home from the Pocomoke City Colored Fair with his twelve-year-old daughter (Jessie), John and William Pilchard confronted him, leading to the educator sustaining two fatal knife wounds. ((Worcester Democrat and the Ledger-Enterprise, (Pocomoke City, MD.) Sept. 17, 1921, 1))

Stephen Handy Long, born in Pocomoke City after the Civil War in 1865, spent his formative years in Boston, Massachusetts. After graduating from Lincoln University in 1893, he returned to the Eastern Shore to pursue a career in teaching. In 1914, he became the first supervisor of colored schools in Worcester County.

Manslaughter Conviction

After the State of Maryland charged John Pilchard with murder, the Baltimore Sun reported that he was the first white man indicted for the first-degree murder of a Black person in Worcester County. Defense lawyers successfully obtained a change of venue, moving the trail to Dorchester County. The daughter’s testimony was critical for the prosecutors as the Pilchards said eight Black men jumped them.((Baltimore Sun, “To Face Court Today for Death of Negro,” Oct. 24, 1921, 2))  

When the Dorchester County Jury brought in a verdict of guilt for manslaughter, the panel recommended clemency. The Maryland and Herald on Nov. 29, 1921, stated that the jurors deliberated for three hours and could not agree on a charge of murder in the first degree, the vote standing eight to four for acquittal, so they settled on manslaughter. The judge sentenced Pilchard to three years in the House of Corrections.((Maryland and Herald, Nov. 29, 1921))

The Baltimore Afro-American editorial noted the irony of the sentencing: Had Pilchard been colored and Long white, there would have been a different story to tell at this trial. “Even now, Cambridge would be asking the governor to set an early day for execution.” 

stephen handy long
In recent decades, efforts have been made to memorialize Stephen H. Long. This is his memorial stone at Mount Zion Methodist Church Cemetery. (Photo Credit: Lisa Hutchings)

Lisa’s research project on Stephen Handy Long’s impact on the education of African American children in Worcester County was a memorable and poignant experience for everyone in the class. Her in-depth scholarship uncovered a tragic revelation about Professor Long’s untimely death due to his advocacy for equal education opportunities for Black children.

As a descendant cousin of the professor, Lisa noted that she knew very little about Stephen Long when she started her investigation. Sharing his life’s story was an honor and privilege she did not take for granted as she learned much about the dedicated educator and his untimely loss, she wrote in the research paper.

The presentation was a reminder of the sacrifices made by those who fought for the rights of Black children to receive an education, and it left a lasting impression on everyone who attended the class. The student-scholar’s dedication to the project and her powerful presentation were a testament to the importance of learning and sharing history to understand and address contemporary issues of inequality and injustice.

The loss of this dedicated educator was a significant blow to the Black community, who were struggling under the oppression of Jim Crow in the 1920s.  Professor Long advocated equality, civil rights, and education for people of color. This was a chilling example of the adversities African American individuals faced in their pursuit of education and equality before the modern civil rights movement.

Researching the Past – A Course Requirement

My classes require students to do applied research projects that involve working with original traces of the past and oral history (when applicable). This approach allows students to better understand historical events and their impact on people’s lives. It also encourages students to explore different perspectives and critically analyze the information they gather. Lisa’s original research project was a prime example of how meaningful and powerful applied research or history labs can be. Through research, the student uncovered important information about a tragic event in history, and this presentation left a lasting impression on everyone who attended

The researcher, Lisa Hutchings, demonstrated an impressive grasp of the era’s intricate historical events, figures, and underlying dynamics around this complicated era. Employing thorough analysis, this scholar expertly researched and crafted the narrative. This well organized, engaging, and emotionally compelling, account is something the members of the class won’t forget. And from the class standpoint, these skills of intellectual inquiry are things they won’t forget as they will carry the applied competencies into their professional careers. 

Visting Pocomoke City

Although this presentation occurred two years ago, it was something I never forget — nor would anyone in the class — so since I was in Somerset and Worcester counties doing fieldwork for another project, I visited the grave where Professor Long was laid to rest and some of the historic spots connected with this civil rights advocate.

Integrating Delaware Nursing Schools

I am researching the struggle for equality in healthcare, a lesser-known dimension of the civil rights movement. Although the U.S. Supreme Court dealt a blow to “separate but equal” in public schools in 1954, segregation persisted for years in medicine. However, by the mid-1960s, a combination of protests, federal legislation, and judicial rulings had significantly disrupted the Jim Crow practices that had long plagued hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics.((Encyclopedia of Alabama, “Hill-Burton Act“))

As I delve into this complex and multifaceted intersection of civil rights and medicine, one area I am concentrating on is the integration of Delaware nursing schools, a significant achievement for the civil rights movement. During the 1950s, nursing schools commonly practiced segregation, limiting opportunities to pursue careers in the caring professions and make meaningful contributions to their communities.

Delaware Schools
Delaware Nursing School
Delaware Nursing School (undated, Wilmington Free Library)

In 1950, Delaware had seven nursing schools--four in Wilmington, one in New Castle County, and two downstate. These programs excluded Blacks leading to a severe shortage of professional African American nurses in the state.((National League of Nursing Education, “State-Approved Schools of Nursing: Schools Meeting Minimum Requirements Set by Law and Board Rules in the Various States and Territories, (New York), 1950))

The National League of Nursing Education produced this 1950 list:

  • Delaware State, Farnhurst, established in 1929, 13 students
  • Beebe, Lewes, 1921, 10 students;
  • Milford Memorial, 1926, 21 students;
  • Delaware, Wilmington, 1897, 160 students;
  • Memorial, Wilmington, 1888, 92 students;
  • St. Francis, Wilmington, 1924, 66 students;
  • Wilmington General, Wilmington, 1910, 50 Students

To gain insight into nursing schools in the City, I am examining records of three Wilmington hospitals. The materials archived at the Lewis B. Flinn Medical Library at Christiana Care offer valuable insight into the policies, practices, and enrollment of these institutions during the mid-20th century.

In 1954, a significant civil rights healthcare milestone occurred in Delaware. Late that year, Wilmington Memorial Hospital Superintendent, Grace L. Little, announced a groundbreaking decision to open admission to the school for qualified candidates regardless of race. This decision marked a significant turning point in the fight for integrated medical education in Delaware, overturning in one institution the discriminatory policies that had long excluded Black students from the program.((Hospital to Accept Nursing Students Regardless of Race,” Morning News, December 7, 1954))

In the fall of 1955, when a new class began at Memorial Hospital, two African American students, Ive Brown of Felton and Carrie Thomas of Chester, PA, proudly stood alongside their classmates for the annual “probie” photo.((“32 Student Nurses Start Memorial Class, Journal-Every Evening, September 7, 1955)),((“Probie Class Photo,” 1958, Wilmington Memorial Hospital))

A Civil Rights Healthcare Milestone

For the first time, African American students were admitted to a registered nurses training program in Delaware. When the hospital held its 65th graduation in 1958, Carrie Thomas and fifteen other young women had completed the course of study for registered nurses. Ive Brown graduated from a one-year practical nursing course at Brown Vocational High School.((“15 Graduate at Memorial,” Morning News, September 4, 1958)).

This milestone, a significant step forward in the struggle for equality in healthcare, contributed to Delaware’s civil rights movement. My work on other dimensions of the civil rights struggle in medicine continues in Delaware.

integrating nursing at Wilmington Memorial Hospital in Delaware
1955 of the “probies” of the class of 1958((Memorial Hospital, Probies-Class of 1958, photograph (Wilmington, DE, 1955), Lewis B. FlInn Medical Library, Christiana Care, Newark, DE.)) (Source: Medial Library, Christiana Care)

For additional photos on integrating nursing schools in Delaware, see this album on Facebook.